Zenobia Jacobs
Ecological and Business Plan:
Sondela Academy:
Soil Survey:
2011:
Balancing out Nature and Business!
Introduction:
— An ecological Management Plan is a five year break down summary of how one intends to improve his/her farm to the extent that all living organisms on that farm can thrive in their environment.
— It takes into consideration all living & non-living aspects of a farm that contribute towards the natural growth & survival of a farm or game reserve.
— These include aspects such as Soil, Fire, Water Resources, Plant Species (Indigenous & Exotic, as well as Alien Invader Species), Wildlife & Tourism.
— It is important that the wildlife farm is managed in such a way that it is a profitable entity without destroying the ecology. It need to be sustainable.
Process that will be followed:
è An identification will be made on the different soil types.
è The different plant and tree species in the different soil types will be identified.
è After you have identified the plants and trees, you can determine which type of animals will be found in the soil areas.
è A budget will be conducted on the maintenance of the different types of soil.
è After the budget, the implementation date will be scheduled
Part 1:
Survey Data:
Soil:
SOIL TYPES AND TESTING:
SOIL INTRODUCTION:
Ø Soil can be described in many different ways, such as heavy, light, sandy, clay, loam, poor or good. Scientists typically describe soil according to the:
• Color
• Compaction
• Moisture content
• Organic content
• pH
• Profile
• Structure
• Temperature, and
• Texture
• Although each of these factors are important, texture, organic content and pH are more important than the others.
• A brief overview of all nine factors will be provided.
Color:
• The Soil color can provide information about organic matter in the soil, drainage, biotic activity, and fertility.
• The chart below can give you some insight into the condition of soil just from its appearance.
• To identify the color of your soil, you should take a garden spade or shovel, and dig a shallow hole, at least 3" - 4" deep, and gauge the color.
Soil Chart:
CONDITION: COLOR:
DARK: MODERATE: LIGHT:
Organic Matter: High Medium Low
Erosion Factor: Low Medium High
Aeration: High Medium Low
Available Nitrogen: High Medium Low
Fertility: High Medium Low
Compaction:
• To have healthy soil, it needs to be able to breath and water needs to be able to move through it reasonably easily.
• Compacted soils don't allow much air to circulate to the root zone and water (rainfall or irrigation) runs-off.
• This will increase erosion and it will strip away the vegetation and topsoil.
• A normal, loosely compacted soil helps to absorb and retain water, releasing it slowly, this allows the root zone of plants to "breath".
• These soils are generally more productive, since plants can grow much more readily.
• Dense, highly compacted soils typically have less plant growth, which increases the runoff.
• The rate of infiltration of water is an excellent indication of soil health.
• You can measure the water infiltration rate very easily.
Water infiltration:
• First, get a large, empty coffee can and cut off the bottom.
• Second, begin about 9cm up from the bottom, mark the inside of the can every 9cm with a permanent marker.
• Drive the can about 9cm into the ground until the first mark is level with the ground (place a board on the top of the can and pound the board with a hammer this will drive the can into the ground. Do not irrigate the area first, since this will prevent you from getting an accurate measurement of the infiltration rate.)
• Fill the can with water to the top and begin timing the rate of infiltration.
• Measure the amount of water that has drained into the soil at the end of each minute for the first ten minutes.
• Determine the rate of infiltration in centimeters per minute by dividing the total number of centimeters of water that drained away in the can by 10 minutes.
• Knowing the actual water infiltration rate for your area is critical if you want minimize the amount of water you use.
• Repeat the experiment at several different areas.
• Record each location and its infiltration rate.
• If the infiltration rate at each location vary considerably, then draw a quick sketch of your area.
• Plot the infiltration rate for each area.
Soil Erosion:
— Soil erosion is influenced mainly by ground cover and vegetation root structure, rainfall intensity, soil type and soil gradient.
— Erosion may be monitored using fixed point photographs taken annually at the same time from the same point and in the same direction.
— This also applies to the recovery process of an area where soil erosion is controlled.
— Erosion should be monitored annually and the recovery of erosion bi-annually.
— The point of photography should be marked with a permanent marker or post.
Sand:
• Sand is the largest particle in the soil.
• When you rub it, it feels rough.
• This is because it has sharp edges.
• Sand doesn't hold many nutrients or water.
Silt:
• Silt is a soil particle whose size is between sand and clay.
• Silt feels smooth and powdery.
• When its wet it feels smooth but not sticky.
Clay:
— Clay is the smallest soil particle.
— Clay is smooth when dry and sticky, or plastic when wet.
— Soils high in clay content are called heavy soils.
— Clay can hold a lot of nutrients, some clay can hold quite a bit of water.
— The structure of clay doesn't let air and water move through it very well.
— Most of the water in a clay soil is so tightly bound to the clay particles that plants can't get it loose.
Moisture:
• The amount of moisture found in soil varies greatly with the type of soil, climate and the amount of humus in that soil.
• The types of organisms that can survive in your soil is largely determined by the amount of water available to them.
• Since water acts as a nutrient transport and is necessary for cell survival.
• Soil moisture can be estimated visually, although this is quite imprecise.
• Soil moisture can also be determined by a soils laboratory.
• Soils labs typically dry a sample in an oven or on a hot plate (approximately 107’C for 24 hours).
• Compare the weight of the soil before drying to the weight after drying.
• The moisture content is reported as percent moisture on a weight basis.
• Several irrigation system manufacturers have developed soil moisture indicators that can be used to control irrigation more precisely, turning the system on only in areas where more water is needed and then only for the minimum time necessary to get the soil moisture back up to the desired level.
Organic Content:
• The organic content of soil greatly influences the plants, animals and the microorganism populations.
• Decomposing organic material provides many necessary nutrients to soil inhabitants.
• Without fresh additions of organic matter from time to time, the soil becomes deficient in some nutrients and soil populations decrease.
• The amount of organic material can be determined by ignition.
• Organic material is made of carbon compounds, which means when heated to high temperatures they convert to carbon dioxide and water.
• In the ignition process, a dry solid sample is heated to a high temperature.
• The organic matter in the soil is given off as gases.
• This results in a change in weight which allows for calculation of the organic content of the sample.
• Oven-dry the sample to remove water (see soil moisture).
• Weigh a crucible and lid, evaporating dish and cover, or other covered containers.
• Place approximately 10 grams of soil samples in the container, cover it and weigh the sample, container and cover.
• Place the container on a metal stand and heat it with a propane torch.
• Allow the fumes to escape, but not the soil particles.
• Heat the sample strongly after most of the gases have escaped.
• Continue heating until there are no visible fumes.
• Cool the container, lid, and sample.
• Reweigh and calculate the percent of organic material.
Soil pH:
• Most people think that rainwater has a pH of 7.
• Rainwater (if its not polluted) has a normal pH of about 6 - 6.5.
• which means it is slightly acidic.
• This is due to dissolved carbon dioxide from the air, which reacts with water to form a dilute acid (carbonic acid), much like the carbon dioxide in soda.
• It should then come as no surprise that most plants grow their best at around the same pH.
• You can determine the pH of your soil very easily using a universal indicator solution or pH paper.
• To determine the pH, just put a small amount of the soil to be tested in a clear or white container. Do not to touch the sample.
• Pour a small amount of universal indicator over the soil, then match the color of the indicator solution (not the soil) with the pH color chart.
• If you decide to use pH paper, pour a small amount of water on the soil sample.
• Touch the pH paper to the sample and match to color of the paper to the pH color chart.
• *Please note that some plants, such as rhododendron, camellias, azaleas, blueberries, ferns, spruce, pines, firs, and red cedar prefer soil that is more acidic, with a pH of 4.0 to 5.0.
• Other plants, such as beech, mock orange, asparagus and sagebrush tolerate soils with a pH 7.0 to 8.0.
• Above a pH 8.5, the soil is too alkaline for most plants, while if the soil pH is below 3.5 it will be too acid.
• You should also note that each layer of soil may have a different pH, which means that pH can vary within the soil, although the differences are usually not too great.
Soil Profile:
• If you really want to know about your soil, the best way to start is to obtain a cross-section of the various layers.
• This can be done fairly easily if you use a soil core tool.
• A soil core tool is little more than a hollow tube 61 - 122 cm’s in length with a handle and cross piece like a shovel to help push it in.
• Once the tool has been inserted into the soil, it should be turned to loosen the soil and then pulled out.
• The resulting soil core can be easily examined to identify the various layers (each layer is also called a horizon) in the soil, the aggregate of which is called a soil profile.
• To determine a soil horizon, you simply mark where the soil changes color and/or general appearance.
• Many soils have three major layers or horizons, top soil, subsoil and parent material
• Depending on where you sample, the top zone may be comprised of actively growing plants and dead plant materials.
• The top soil is typically darker colored and usually has more organic matter, higher biotic activity, abundant roots, and commonly lower in nutrients than underlying layers.
• The first centimeter of top soil may be lighter in color because many of the nutrients may have been leached out by water, and organic material may have been partially oxidized by sunlight and heat.
• The soil immediately below the first centimeter is usually somewhat darker, has many roots, moderate organic matter, and provides most of the nutrients for the plants.
• The next major layer is the subsoil.
• This layer is typically 30 to 61 cm below the surface and is characterized by a lighter color with much fewer, larger roots.
• The subsurface layer generally has less clay than the topsoil.
• The third layer, which may not be observable, is the parent material.
• This consists of unconsolidated, slightly weathered rocky materials from which soil develops.
• It is characterized by limited biotic activity and very few roots.
Soil Structure:
• Soil structure tells how the soil affects the movement of water, air and root penetration into the soil.
• The geometric shapes of the soil determine how it is put together.
• Words such as blocky (the blocks of soil are large, with the same number of cracks going horizontal as vertical).
• Granular (the blocks of soil are small, with the same number of cracks going horizontal as vertical)
• Columns (the blocks of soil and related cracks are generally longer in the vertical direction than in the horizontal)
• Plate-like (the blocks of soil and related cracks are generally longer in the horizontal direction than in the vertical), describe soil structures.
• To determine the structure of your soil, carefully break apart each layer and match its characteristics with the appropriate structural type shown below.
Water capacity:
STRUCTURAL TYPE: WATER PENETRATION: DRAINAGE: AERATION:
Colums: Good Good Good
Blocky: Good Moderate Moderate
Granular: Good Best Best
Plate-like: Moderate Moderate Moderate
Soil Temperature:
• Soil temperature has a significant role in helping to determine the rate of plant growth, and whether a plant will even survive.
• The temperature in your soil changes greatly with depth.
• To measure soil temperature, find an area that is not in direct sunlight.
• Using a thermometer, measure the air temperature at shoulder height.
• Hold the thermometer still for about one minute (make sure your fingers are not on the thermometer bulb), read and record the air temperature.
• Next, measure the temperature at the surface of the ground.
• Put the thermometer flat on the ground and record the temperature after one minute.
• To determine the temperature below the ground surface, use a dowel that you have marked at 30cm, 61cm, 183cm and 366cm.
• Start by pushing the dowel into the ground till you reach the 30cm mark.
• Remove the dowel and insert the thermometer for one minute, then remove the thermometer and quickly record the temperature.
• Repeat this procedure to obtain temperature readings at 61cm, 183cm and 366cm.
• Take temperature readings at different times throughout the day at the same location.
• To compare with soil temperatures for areas in direct sun, just repeat using the same procedure but select an area that gets full sun.
• You will note that the soil temperatures in these areas are typically much higher than in the shaded areas.
Soil Temperature:
SOIL TEMPERATURE: CONDITIONS DURING GROWING SEASON:
4.5 Degrees Celsius No Growth. Bacteria and Fungi not very active
4.5 - 18.3 Degrees Celsius Some Growth
18.3 - 21.1 Degrees Celsius Fastest Growth
21.1 - 29.4 Degrees Celsius Some Growth
29.4 Degrees Celsius No Growth
Sandy Soils:
— The pink out-line indicates where the sandy Soils on Sondela is.
— As you can see, the sandy soils take up almost half of the farm.
— Sandy soil absorbs more than 61cm of water per hour.
— It is very porous, with large spaces between soil particles.
— Little water is retained and the sandy soil dries out quickly.
— The sandy soil area is originated from Big Granite Rocks (Koppies) which had weathered over the years.
— This caused the sandy area that we have on Sondela today. These Granite rocks are obviously very smaller today.
— The sandy area is higher than the rest of the farm.
— This causes the water to wash from the higher point down to the lower areas.
— The water runs down to the clay area, as the water washes/runs down it takes some of the nutrients with them.
— This provides some areas with more/other nutrients and it also takes nutrients from the current areas.
Red clay/loam Soils:
— The red outline indicates where you will find red clay/Loam soils.
— Loam soil absorbs from 7- 61cm per hour.
— The soil is loose and porous and holds water quite well.
Clay Soils:
— The green spots are where you can locate the clay/turf soils.
— Clay soil absorbs less than 1cm of water per hour.
— Clay soil is dense with few air spaces between particles and holds water so tightly that little water is available for plants.
Different soil types:
— 
Map Key:
Soil and Farm Border Calculations:
• Sandy Soils: 12km (400h Across Highway) + 21km =33km
• 
Red Clay: 27km
• Turf: 1,5km + 7km + 0,800km = 9,3km
• Farm Border: 13km (4ooh) +(Sondela) 28km = 41km
Characteristics of Different Soil Types:
• It can be argued that no two soils are ever exactly alike.
• Although this is true, it is useful to group soils into categories.
• Three major categories of soil dominate our area.
• These are:
• Sandy soil
• Loam soil, and
• Clay soil
• To figure out what type of soil you have, there are several easy methods.
• The first, called the rope test, requires that you squeeze a moist, but not muddy, one inch ball of soil in your hand.
• Then rub the soil between your fingers.
• Sandy soil feels gritty and loose.
• It won't form a ball and falls apart when rubbed between your fingers.
• Loam soil is smooth, slick, partially gritty and sticky and forms a ball that crumbles easily.
• It is a combination of sand and clay particles.
• Clay soil is smooth, sticky and somewhat plastic feeling.
• It forms ribbons when pressed between fingers.
• Clay soil requires more pressure to form a ball than loam soil, but does not crumble apart as easily.
• A second test is called a jar test and is very easy to do.
• Here's what you'll need:
• 1 clean quart jar and tight fitting lid
• clean water
• soil sample
• First, find an empty, clean quart jar.
• Fill the jar about 2/3 full with clean water.
• Next, take a sample of soil (break the large clods apart so it will fit through the jar opening) and fill the jar and water until the jar is nearly full, leaving about 4cm of air space at the top.
• Screw on the lid and shake it vigorously for a minute or two, until all the soil particles are broken down into suspension in the water.
• Now, allow the suspended soil to settle for about a minute, and place a mark on the side of the jar at the top of the layer that has settled out.
• This is the sand layer is comprised primarily of sand and larger particles.
• Set the jar aside, being careful not to mix the sand layer that has already settled and wait approximately an hour.
• Now, place a mark on the side of the jar at the top of the next layer to settle out.
• This is the silt layer.
• Again, place the jar aside for a full day, being careful not to shake or mix the layers that have settled out.
• After 24 hours, or when the water is once again clear (more or less), place a mark on the side of the jar at the top of the final layer.
• This is the clay layer.
• The percentage of each layer tells you what kind of soil you have.
Sandy Soils:
TYPE OF SOIL:
*Sandy soils can be found throughout Southern Africa and Southern California.
*It can be found near mountain Foothills, along rivers and streams and also at certain coastal areas.
*Sandy soils are comprised of 80-100% sand, 0-10% silt and 0 - 10% clay by volume.0-10% Clay 0-10% Silt 80-100% Sand
*Sandy soils are light and very free draining, known to hold very poorly due to the very low organic content.
EXAMPLE OF A TEST JAR:
Loam Soils:
TYPE OF SOIL:
*Loam soil is common in Southern Africa as well as in Southern Africa.
*You will find them in the valleys and fload areas (Flood plains) surrounding rivers and streams.
*Loam soil is comprised from 25-50% Sand, 30-50% silt and 10-30% clay by volume. 10-30% Clay 30-50% Silt 25-50% Sand
*Loam soil is heavier than sandy soils, they are also fairly free draining due to low organic content.
EXAMPLE OF A TEST JAR:
Clay Soils:
TYPE OF SOIL:
*Clay soils are found in around urban areas where fill soils have been used to establish grade in subdivision and developments.
*Clay soils are comprised of 0-45% sand, 0-45% silt and 50-100% clay by volume.
*Clay soils are not free draining and water takes a long time to infiltrate. 50-100% ,Clay 0-45% Silt , 0-45% Sand
*When wet the soil allows basically everything to run-off. Clay soils are heavy and difficult to work with when dry.
EXAMPLE OF A TEST JAR:
Conclusion:
— Soil erosion is a major issue on Sondela.
— A control plan needs to be worked out.
— When working out a control plan, have in mind the different seasons, rainfall, etc.
— Staff needs to be trained in the identification of soil erosion.
— Open fields/plains without many trees as well as areas with heavy water flow are the ideal locations for soil erosion to occur.
— Ensure that it is project driven.
— Make sure it is at least 65% self Funding.
Part 2:
Broad Plan:
— Who: Conservation department
— What: Fix future problem areas leading to soil erosion on a schedule according to a time scale
— When: Priorities need to be determined on the most effected areas over a period of time
— Where: The areas that are indicated on the map
What thereafter: Regular surveys need to be done to report on the control successes
Detail Plan:
— The detail plan indicates the priorities in each area/section.
— The method that will be used.
— The resources available.
— The time allocated.
— The rehabilitation process.
— Formulate the monitoring aspect -beginning of a year.
— The implementation of the yearly plan - done by the conservation department according to a project plan.
Part 3:
Budget: 2011/12
Soil:
— As part of the bigger picture the idea is to be able to obtain funds to finance the rehabilitation of the eroded areas.
— The conservation levy is one key income.
— The other key income is the game drive income.
Budget:
No Item Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct
A Income:
1 Game drives R 3,000 R 2,500 R 2,000 R 4,000 R 3,000 R 3,800 R 2,200 R 2,000 R 4,100 R 2,300
2 Conserv-ation Fee R 3,500 R 3,300 R 2,800 R 4,400 R 3,700 R 4,200 R 3,600 R 3,000 R 4,600 R 3,600
Total: R 6,500 R 5,800 R 4,800 R 8,400 R 6,700 R 8,000 R 5,800 R 5,000 R 8,700 R 5,900
B Expenses:
1 Equipment R 150 R 200 R 100 R 70 R 250 R 110 R 150 R 260 R 120 R 90
2 Labour R 1,000 R 1,000 R 1,000 R 1,000 R 1,000 R 1,000 R 1,000 R 1,000 R 1,000 R 1,000
Total: R 1,150 R 1,200 R 1,100 R 1,070 R 1,250 R 1,110 R 1,150 R 1,260 R 1,120 R 1,090
Income: R 65,600
Expenses: R 11,500
Total/Profit: R 54,100
Part 4:
Schedule rehabilitation:
Soil:
Schedule:
- The distribution of the invaders were mapped as well as the methods of eradication determined.
— The broad plan were formulated and budgeted for.
— The scheduling now take place as it is not possible to eradicate all invaders at the same time.
— The scheduling indicate that the plants that will partly fund the process will be done over the five year period. (Sickle bush)
— Follow up ( monitoring) for returning infestations need to be done by doing regularly surveys of re-infestations.
— The schedule is based on the approved plan and budget.
— The schedule execution is project driven in terms of planning, budgeting and execution
Bibliography:
— http://www.ehow.com/about_6676967_plant-sand-vs_-potting-soil.html
— http://www.rain.org/global-garden/soil-types-and-testing.htm
P.S. The photo's didn't want to upload..
